Psychology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Psychology - Assignment Example Psychology is the Science that create an understanding towards a logical thinking ability keeping humane in concise. It is a science which is not new but with us right from the human civilization. It is the way where an understanding is built up about the behaviour of a person, and methods could be devised to enhance what is lacking in the personality and how well an individual be groomed to have a sound and congenial influence on the society or social ambience of the individual. Besides the fact that lot of research has been carried out we are still at the tip of the iceberg to further dwell towards the understanding of psychology. So far an immense collection of theories that have been postulated over the years have been made and studied along with varies protocols and experiments that have been performed to resolve behaviour issues. Theories postulated are for different kinds of behaviour and not the same for all kinds of behavioural issue. Based on psychological theories humans are classified into various patterns and syndromes. Psychology helps these individuals to recover various therapeutic problems. Thus psychology encompass a study of behaviour including the activities and reactions; and the internal progression of views and judgments. The term "psyche" means soul and "logos" means a study. Thus psychology is not confined to any core study but it encompass a complete understanding of the nature as well as the way it was nurtured under a given set of conditions. Psychology sets its goal for its study as: Description of the issue or the subject, explanation, prediction of the possibilities and modifications that are possible. 1. Description- It describes the performance, that an individual displays and based on this analysis a psychologists try to comprehend if this attitude or behaviour is under normal or acceptable limits. For this, a psychologists analyzes, opinion and views, emotions, beliefs, mind-set, outlook and approaches,

Celestial navigation using Jupiter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Celestial navigation using Jupiter - Essay Example They suggested that the disparity in time amid the observed and the prospective time at a standard meridian would enable longitudinal meridian to be identified. The innermost moons had an orbital of around one and a quarter days and callsito. The outermost had a period of about 17 (Watson,13). It is through regular observation that they understood their motions developing comprehensive tables of predictions. The method of measuring longitude involves drawing comparisons between the planets and the moon thus drawing rough estimates of the longitude. The method by Galileo articulated that it took the earth twenty four hours to travel 360 degrees rotation, at any point. His meant that at every point the earth travels fifteen degrees of longitude in every hour (Watson, 15). They thus carried accurate clocks to the see where two clocks were compared one clock based on the home port and the other in the ship. It was mandatory for the clock in the ship to be reset to local noon time daily. The difference in time was an indication of the longitudinal difference travelled. One hour represented a fifteen degree in longitude. Longitude is calculated in degrees east or west of the prime meridian, with 180 degrees on either side of the prime meridian. ... Latitudes are equidistant from each other thus the term parallels (Silvio, 82). In the ancient times sailors used the latitudes in their navigation. It was during the Ptolemy era when a grid system for the earth was created. The earth, a circle, was divided into 360 degrees. Each degree was issued with one hour, and each minute comprised 60 seconds. It was in his book geography where the coordinated were published. The ancient sailors used sextants in measuring latitudes. A sextant is a navigational appliance that measures the angle of elevation of any celestial body (sun and the moon). This was done in an attempt to locate ones direction. The instrument was thus used to determine the angle linking two objects. A sextant spans at 60 degree which is a sixth of a circle thus the name. In measuring latitude, at the equator which has a zero degree latitude the Polaris is in horizon with zero degrees altitude. The elevation in the angle of Polaris above the horizon indicated a direct meas ure of terrestrial latitude. This means that in case the angle of Polaris was measured by a navigator and found to be 10 degrees from the horizon, then the ship is ten degrees north of the equator. At times they determined the latitudes through the directions travelled by stars over time. They articulated that if the stars rise from the east and they travel straight upwards then one is ate equator. In case the stars drifted south then one is at the north of the equator. This can be postulated to occur due to the movement of the earth in an orbit around the sun. The other method of measuring longitude was the use of the marine chronometer. This involved the use of a time piece that was to be carried in a ship and would maintain the correct reference time

Eating Too Much Meat Will Kill You Essay Example for Free

Eating Too Much Meat Will Kill You Essay Bill Cosby once stated, â€Å"Did you ever see the customers in health-food stores? They are pale, skinny people who look half dead. In a steak house, you see robust, ruddy people. They’re dying, of course, but they look terrific.† On average, Americans consume about 8 oz. of meat a day, twice the amount as the rest of the world; about one-sixth of the total meat consumed, U.S being less than one-twentieth of the population. Meat is generally delicious, contains rich sources of proteins and minerals. Some nutritional diet programs like the Atkins Diet have linked certain types of meat-based diets to weight loss. On the contrary, eating too much meat has been linked to certain type of cancers, high cholesterol and an increased risk of contracting a foodborne illness. Americans need to recognize that diets high in meat increases the cancer risk and other health issues. Evidence suggested that consuming meat could damage the body. In a country known for its love for hamburgers and steak, consumers need to cut down on their meat for a healthy life. Consumers also need to understand grilling meat increase the risk of cancer. Part of the solution is eating healthy, but consumers also should be aware of what they’re eating. The big issue in America is quantity. Eating meat and fast-food meat on a daily basis for seven days a week, 365 days a year, is a big reason why the risk for cancer and other health diseases is dangerously high in U.S. United States slaughters more than 10 billion land animals every year (Freston 802), and the market research firm Packed Facts stated Americans spends 142 billion dollar on beef, chicken, pork, lamb at market retails. Eating too much red meat has been linked to increased risk of death from cancer and heart disease, according to a study from American Cancer Society, the more red meat you eat will increase the risk for cancer. A Journal published by the American Medical Association reported a 20-year study of nearly 149,000 adults between the ages of 50 and 74. Researchers examine the risk according to how much red meat, poultry, or fish the people had eaten. Researchers looked at how many people develop colon cancer after the study. The results were 30% to 40% are more likely to develop cancer in the lower part of the colon. People who ate the most processed meats were 50% more likely to develop colon cancer (Parish 6). Eating just three ounces meat a day increases the consumer’s chance of dying by 13 percent, and 20 percent increase if eating processed meat, like bacon and hot dogs. But it doesn’t mean we should completely cut out meat in our diet; these statistics demonstrates that the less meat you eat, the better. Consuming meat damages the body. According to Dr. Oz, from the Dr. Oz Show, eating a steak dinner can take two to three days to get out of your intestines (par. 3). Red meat takes more than 24 hours to completely digest. In the mean time, it is in your intestine rotting at 98 degrees, sending toxins through the body. Eating any food that does not completely digest will ruin your health. What happens is that the human stomach acids are not made to break meat down efficiently because of its high fat and protein contents. The body lacks the enzymes that digest proteins in the stomach. Protein digestion mainly takes place in the first section of the small intestines where the pancreas secretes the types of digestive enzymes to help break down nutrients into energy and allow the nutrients molecules enter the bloodstream. Hence, meat takes longer as it has to pass into the stomach and the intestines, opposed to carbohydrates, which are broken down easily by saliva and the stomach. Although red meat is digestible than any other food sources such as rice and vegetable, it remains in the digestive system for a longer period of time, leaving the meat to rot in your intestines. Dr Klein believes that animal protein is the primary cause for the inflammation of the intestines because meat rots in your stomach (4). It explains why eating animal protein for a long period of time can increase the risk of colon cancer. Also the kidneys work to remove excess protein from your body. Eating too much protein can stress out the kidney, leading to kidney damage. Grilling meat is a method that most people are familiar with. Grilling is part of American culture; it brings family and friends together for the holidays like Independence Day. Grilling is a method of cooking food hot and fast on your grill. Burgers, poultry, beef, seafood are typically grilled. Grilling is actually a much healthier option than frying food because it is low fat and you can grill food without adding oil on them. But unfortunately, grilling food may potentially introduce the risk for cancer. Those juicy hamburgers, especially the charred ones contains cancer causing chemical called carcinogen. When you grill meat, some of the fat drips down to the charcoal or flame and the smoke carry the carcinogen known heterocyclic amines (HCA ) and polycyclic armomatic hydrocarbons (PAH) to form. These compounds have been shown to affect our DNA and might cause cancer. PAH is the same smoke from forest fires, coal burning, car exhaust and smoking. Exposure to high amounts of PAH is dangerous to your health and long term exposure increase the risk of cancer. According to 2007 study in Epidemiology, women with high intakes of grilled, barbecued or smoked meats over their lifetime had a 74 percent chance of developing breast cancer (373). It is also important to not that these women has low intake of fruits and vegetables. Most people are not aware of the carcinogen when they are grilling the meat. But let’s face it, grilled meat taste good and people should not give up on their grass fed steak or burgers from the grill. There are couple ways to grill safely and reducing carcinogen. 1. Marinating meats for at least several hours that contains herb and spices can dramatically reduce HCA. Herbs/spices is highly potent antioxidant that helps prevent HCA formation. 2. Pre-cook the meat in either the oven or microwave and finish it on the grill to decrease the amount of the carcinogen. 3. Pick leaner cuts like skinless chicken, lean beef or pork; it decreases the fat from dripping down on the open flame. It also important to remember that well-done meat has a higher concentration of carcinogen. Medium-rare, or medium cook is healthier choice than well done. These tips to reduce and prevent carcinogen is a safe way to consume grilled meat, but what about restaurants that serves grilled meats? Unfortunately, the meat holds carcinogens. Study shows restaurant meat such as burgers, ribs, and chicken carry substantial amounts of carcinogen. Few years ago, KFC calls their new Grilled Chicken â€Å"the better-for-you chicken for health- conscious customers.† But a PCRM a test shows the grilled chicken contains a high level of carcinogen (Sullivan 12). Consumers eating grilled chicken from popular restaurant chains are exposed to substantial level of carcinogen. A study published in Nutrition and Cancers show that an independent laboratory examined one hundred samples from seven popular restaurants, and Phip, a carcinogen, was found in all the samples (33). These findings clearly show that eating grill chicken can potentially cause cancer. Consumers deserve to know what they’re eating is just as worse as a greasy high-fat fried chicken. It misleads consumers to think grilled chicken is healthy diet but in actuality a grilled chicken salad can increase the risk of breast cancer, prostate cancer, and other dangerous health disease. If that the case, shouldn’t the government or chain restaurant provide warning labels on their product? Since Tobacco Company labels their pack with a warning that cigarette causes cancer; restauran ts serving cancer-causing meat should do the same. When parents cook chicken for their children, they try to be health conscious. If people knew there were high levels of carcinogens in their grilled chicken, they may not choose it as a healthy alternative. Meat is part of American culture; Western men often forge a strong link between eating meat and masculinity. Eating too much meat is a common problem in American Society. I believe most Americans don’t realize that they’re eating too much meat. When comparing the size of the burger we’re eating today to the past decades, our burger has gotten bigger. Bacon is a big part of American culture today. It brings child-hood memories of how mothers cooked bacon for their children. It is also a common breakfast food and is often associated with family gatherings. But, eating bacon every single day of your life has life threatening repercussion to your health. Most processed meat like bacon or hot dogs contains sodium nitrate. Sodium nitrate is a food additive used in m any processed meats. It increases shelf life, gives any meat a fresh appearance, improves the smoky flavors of bacon, and slows the rate of the foul smell, and reduces bacteria (Kortboyer 5). It seems sodium nitrate is a great additive but it is widely regarded as a toxic ingredient. It is a highly carcinogenic chemical and once it enters the human digestive system; it release toxin to a number of internal organs including liver and pancreas. USDA tried to ban sodium nitrate in the 1970’s but was vetoed by food manufacturers who complained that they are trying to ban bacon from America and insisted the additive was safe. The sodium nitrate is found in almost every meat package. It’s listed right on processed meat products like bacon, turkey, hot dogs, and meats in canned soups. If it’s so dangerous, why does food manufactures use it? It sells more meat products because it makes the meat appear fresh and vibrant. Consumers are often influenced by the appearance of the meat, and sadly they will buy meat that looks fresh because of the additives, but in reality, the meat could be months old. A proven strategy to help combat sodium nitrates is to consume large doses of vitamin C and E before your meal. Another safe alternative is purchasing nitrite-free meat to reduce the exposure to sodium nitrate. But, meat without nitrates is prone to spoilage. I believe meat industry uses the saturated fat argument to distract consumers from real issues like cancer. Fruits with high saturated fat like coconut juice wont increase a person risk of cancer to jump up 50%. The real issue is what’s added to the meat during processing and packaging. While eating too much meat can be dangerous, the solution is to consume less. Meat is rich in protein and the body needs protein to maintain cellular tissue. Reducing meat intake benefits the bones. According to Dr. Campbell of Cornell University, animal sourced proteins extract more calcium from the bones, causing the bone to weaken (par. 4). Another good benefit of cutting back on meat is it that makes the consumer eat more nutritious foods. A study from American Journal of Clinical Nutrition reported that participants who were served a meal with less meat ate more vegetables (Rolls 916). Eating small portions of good quality meat can help curb meat cravings and will not jeopardize the health. Many health education websites like Meatless Mondays offer idea of cutting back on meat consumptions. Another healthy alternative is replacing meat with non-meat sources of protein. Small red beans, black beans, legumes, dairy products are all good source of protein. While fish and seafood are technically meats, they do not carry the same risks as red meat, chicken, and pork because they contain low saturated fat and cholesterol. Non-meat protein not only has low saturated fat and cholesterol, they contain healthy fats, vitamins and minerals the body needs. Besides, the average person only needs about eight grams of protein per 20 lbs of body weight. Make no mistake, Americans love eating meats. Meat is essential part of a healthy diet, but over consumption of meat will kill you. America spends hundred of billion dollars on meat and it’s no wonder why cancer is epidemic in United States. Meat is considered a luxury in other country’s, but meat in America is readily available anywhere and consumers need to learn self-restraint. Meat like hot dogs and bacon is part of American culture, but consumers need to understand that meat industry’s uses dangerous additives like sodium nitrate and eating it for a long period of time will have repercussion to your health. Strong evidence claims that not only the harmful sodium nitrate harms the body, but also eating meat in general will damage the body. There are other healthy options like non-meat protein. But the solution to the problem is consumers need to be aware of what they’re eating and learn self-restraint.

Philippine Attacks :: essays research papers

ZAMBOANGA, Philippines (AP) - Philippine forces launched attacks on three southern islands in an effort to wipe out the guerrillas who held a U.S. couple hostage for more than a year, military officers said Sunday. The assaults, which started Saturday after one of the Americans and a Philippine captive died in a rescue attempt, are aimed at the top three commanders of the Islamic militant group Abu Sayyaf, said Philippine Maj. Gen. Ernesto Carolina. Martin Burnham, 42, and Ediborah Yap, 45, died in a shootout Friday when government troops ambushed their captors in jungles of the main southern Philippine island of Mindanao. Burnham's wife Gracia was shot through the thigh but rescued. "We're now operating with greater ZAMBOANGA, Philippines (AP) - Philippine forces launched attacks on three southern islands in an effort to wipe out the guerrillas who held a U.S. couple hostage for more than a year, military officers said Sunday. The assaults, which started Saturday after one of the Americans and a Philippine captive died in a rescue attempt, are aimed at the top three commanders of the Islamic militant group Abu Sayyaf, said Philippine Maj. Gen. Ernesto Carolina. Martin Burnham, 42, and Ediborah Yap, 45, died in a shootout Friday when government troops ambushed their captors in jungles of the main southern Philippine island of Mindanao. Burnham's wife Gracia was shot through the thigh but rescued. "We're now operating with greater intensity. We will not let them get away with this," said Carolina, head of southern Philippine forces. He said no clashes were reported as of Sunday morning. Carolina said 1,500 and 1,800 soldiers would arrive in the next three days to back troops already hunting the Abu Sayyaf on the islands of Jolo, Basilan and the province of Zamboanga del Norte on Mindanao. "We will have to finish this war because terrorism is a scourge on the Earth," President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo said Sunday. All three mountainous, jungle-covered areas stand in a 60-mile stretch of the Sulu Sea in the southwestern Philippines. It wasn't clear how many troops were already involved in the operations, but thousands of soldiers have been in the area for months - since the military launched its offensive after the Abu Sayyaf seized the Burnhams and several other hostages in May 2001. Carolina said soldiers on Mindanao were hunting Abu Sayyaf leader Abu Sabaya, who fled into dense jungle with about 40 men after the army attacked them during Friday's rescue mission. (AP) Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, right, extends her condolences to the family of slain.

Live and Let Live

The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet 1 The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet Ed Krol [email  protected] cso. uiuc. edu Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet 2 This document was produced through funding of the National Science Foundation. Copyright (C) 1987, by the Board of Trustees of The University of Illinois. Permission to duplicate this document, in whole or part, is granted provided reference is made to the source and this copyright is included in whole copies. This document assumes that one is familiar with the workings of a non-connected simple IP network (e. . a few 4. 2 BSD systems on an Ethernet not connected to anywhere else). Appendix A contains remedial information to get one to this point. Its purpose is to get that person, familiar with a simple net, versed in the â€Å"oral tradition† of the Internet to the point that that net can be connected to the Internet with little dang er to either. It is not a tutorial, it consists of pointers to other places, literature, and hints which are not normally documented. Since the Internet is a dynamic environment, changes to this document will be made regularly. The author welcomes comments and suggestions.This is especially true of terms for the glossary (definitions are not necessary). In the beginning there was the ARPAnet, a wide area experimental network connecting hosts and terminal servers together. Procedures were set up to regulate the allocation of addresses and to create voluntary standards for the network. As local area networks became more pervasive, many hosts became gateways to local networks. A network layer to allow the interoperation of these networks was developed and called IP (Internet Protocol). Over time other groups created long haul IP based networks (NASA, NSF, states†¦ ). These nets, too, interoperate because of IP.The collection of all of these interoperating networks is the Internet. Two groups do much of the research and information work of the Internet (ISI and SRI). ISI (the Informational Sciences Institute) does much of the research, standardization, and allocation work of the Internet. SRI International provides information services for the Internet. In fact, after you are connected to the Internet most of the information in this document can be retrieved from the Network Information Center (NIC) run by SRI. Operating the Internet Each network, be it the ARPAnet, NSFnet or a regional network, has its own operations center.The ARPAnet is run by Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet BBN, Inc. under contract from DARPA. Their facility is called the Network Operations Center or NOC. Cornell University temporarily operates NSFnet (called the Network Information Service Center, NISC). It goes on to the -2regionals having similar facilities to monitor and keep watch over the goings on of their portion of the Internet. In addition, they all should have some knowledge of what is happening to the Internet in total.If a problem comes up, it is suggested that a campus network liaison should contact the network operator to which he is directly connected. That is, if you are connected to a regional network (which is gatewayed to the NSFnet, which is connected to the ARPAnet†¦ ) and have a problem, you should contact your regional network operations center. 3 RFCs The internal workings of the Internet are defined by a set of documents called RFCs (Request for Comments). The general process for creating an RFC is for someone wanting something formalized to write a document describing the issue and mailing it to Jon Postel ([email  protected] edu).He acts as a referee for the proposal. It is then commented upon by all those wishing to take part in the discussion (electronically of course). It may go through multiple revisions. Should it be generally accepted as a good idea, it will be assigned a number and filed with the RFCs. The RFCs can be divided into five groups: required, suggested, directional, informational and obsolete. Required RFC's (e. g. RFC-791, The Internet Protocol) must be implemented on any host connected to the Internet. Suggested RFCs are generally implemented by network hosts. Lack of them does not preclude access to the Internet, but may impact its usability.RFC-793 (Transmission Control Protocol) is a suggested RFC. Directional RFCs were discussed and agreed to, but their application has never come into wide use. This may be due to the lack of wide need for the specific application (RFC-937 The Post Office Protocol) or that, although technically superior, ran against other pervasive approaches (RFC-891 Hello). It is suggested that should the facility be required by a particular site, animplementation be done in accordance with the RFC. This insures that, should the idea be one whose time has come, the implementation will be in accordance with some standard and will be generally usable.Informational RFCs contain factual information about the Internet and its operation (RFC-990, Assigned Numbers). Finally, as the Internet and technology have grown, some RFCs have become unnecessary. These obsolete RFCs cannot be ignored, however. Frequently when a change is made to some RFC that causes a new one to be issued obsoleting others, the new RFC only contains explanations and motivations for the change. Understanding the model on which the whole facility is based may involve reading the original and subsequent RFCs Get any book for free on: www. Abika. comThe Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet on the topic. -3(Appendix B contains a list of what are considered to be the major RFCs necessary for understanding the Internet). 4 The Network Information Center The NIC is a facility available to all Internet users which provides information to the community. There are three means of NIC contact: network, telephone, and mail. The network accesses are t he most prevalent. Interactive access is frequently used to do queries of NIC service overviews, look up user and host names, and scan lists of NIC documents. It is available by using %telnet sri-nic. rpa on a BSD system and following the directions provided by a user friendly prompter. From poking around in the databases provided one might decide that a document named NETINFO:NUG. DOC (The Users Guide to the ARPAnet) would be worth having. It could be retrieved via an anonymous FTP. An anonymous FTP would proceed something like the following. (The dialogue may vary slightly depending on the implementation of FTP you are using). %ftp sri-nic. arpa Connected to sri-nic. arpa. 220 SRI_NIC. ARPA FTP Server Process 5Z(47)-6 at Wed 17-Jun-87 12:00 PDT Name (sri-nic. arpa:myname): anonymous 331 ANONYMOUS user ok, send real ident as password.Password: myname 230 User ANONYMOUS logged in at Wed 17-Jun-87 12:01 PDT, job 15. ftp; get netinfo:nug. doc 200 Port 18. 144 at host 128. 174. 5. 50 a ccepted. 150 ASCII retrieve of NUG. DOC. 11 started. 226 Transfer Completed 157675 (8) bytes transferred local: netinfo:nug. doc remote:netinfo:nug. doc 157675 bytes in 4. 5e+02 seconds (0. 34 Kbytes/s) ftp; quit 221 QUIT command received. Goodbye. (Another good initial document to fetch is NETINFO:WHAT-THE-NIC-DOES. TXT)! Questions of the NIC or problems with services can be asked of or reported to using electronic mail. The following addresses can be used: [email  protected]ARPA requests [email  protected] ARPA General user assistance, document User registration and WHOIS updates Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet [email  protected] ARPA Hostname and domain changes and updates [email  protected] ARPA SRI-NIC computer operations [email  protected] ARPA Comments on NIC publications and services -4For people without network access, or if the number of documents is large, many of the NIC documents are available in printed form for a small charge. One frequently ordered document for starting sites is a compendium of major RFCs.Telephone access is used primarily for questions or problems with network access. (See appendix B for mail/telephone contact numbers). 5 The NSFnet Network Service Center The NSFnet Network Service Center (NNSC) is funded by NSF to provide a first level of aid to users of NSFnet should they have questions or encounter problems traversing the network. It is run by BBN Inc. Karen Roubicek ([email  protected] nsf. net) is the NNSC user liaison. The NNSC, which currently has information and documents online and in printed form, plans to distribute news through network mailing lists, bulletins, newsletters, and online reports.The NNSC also maintains a database of contact points and sources of additional information about NSFnet component networks and supercomputer centers. Prospective or current users who do not know whom to call concerning questions about NSFnet use, should contact the NN SC. The NNSC will answer general questions, and, for detailed information relating to specific components of the Internet, will help users find the appropriate contact for further assistance. (Appendix B) Mail Reflectors The way most people keep up to date on network news is through subscription to a number of mail reflectors.Mail reflectors are special electronic mailboxes which, when they receive a message, resend it to a list of other mailboxes. This in effect creates a discussion group on a particular topic. Each subscriber sees all the mail forwarded by the reflector, and if one wants to put his â€Å"two cents† in sends a message with the comments to the reflector†¦. The general format to subscribe to a mail list is to find the address reflector and append the string -REQUEST to the mailbox name (not the host name). For example, if you wanted to take part in the mailing list for NSFnet reflected by [email  protected]NSF. NET, one sends a request to Get any book f or free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet [email  protected] NSF. NET. This may be a wonderful scheme, but the problem is that you must know the list exists in the first place. It is suggested that, if you are interested, you read the mail from one list (like NSFNET) and you will probably become familiar with the existence of others. A registration service for mail reflectors is provided by the NIC in the files NETINFO:INTEREST-GROUPS-1. TXT, NETINFO:INTEREST-GROUPS-2. TXT, and NETINFO:INTEREST-GROUPS3.TXT. The NSFNET mail reflector is targeted at those people who have a day to day interest in the news of the NSFnet (the backbone, regional network, and Internet inter-connection site workers). The messages are reflected by a central location and are sent as separate messages to each subscriber. This creates hundreds of messages on the wide area networks where bandwidth is the scarcest. There are two ways in which a campus could spread the news and not cause these messages to inundate the wide area networks. One is to re-reflect the message on the campus.That is, set up a reflector on a local machine which forwards the message to a campus distribution list. The other is to create an alias on a campus machine which places the messages into a notesfile on the topic. Campus users who want the information could access the notesfile and see the messages that have been sent since their last access. One might also elect to have the campus wide area network liaison screen the messages in either case and only forward those which are considered of merit. Either of these schemes allows one message to be sent to the campus, while allowing wide distribution within. Address Allocation Before a local network can be connected to the Internet it must be allocated a unique IP address. These addresses are allocated by ISI. The allocation process consists of getting an application form received from ISI. (Send a message to [email  protected] arpa and ask for the template for a connected address). This template is filled out and mailed back to hostmaster. An address is allocated and e-mailed back to you. This can also be done by postal mail (Appendix B). IP addresses are 32 bits long. It is usually written as four decimal numbers separated by periods (e. . , 192. 17. 5. 100). Each number is the value of an octet of the 32 bits. It was seen from the beginning that some networks might choose to organize themselves as very flat (one net with a lot of nodes) and some might organize hierarchically -6(many interconnected nets with fewer nodes each and a backbone). Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet To provide for these cases, addresses were differentiated into class A, B, and C networks. This classification had to with the interpretation of the octets.Class A networks have the first octet as a network address and the remaining three as a host address on that network. Class C addresses have thre e octets of network address and one of host. Class B is split two and two. Therefore, there is an address space for a few large nets, a reasonable number of medium nets and a large number of small nets. The top two bits in the first octet are coded to tell the address format. All of the class A nets have been allocated. So one has to choose between Class B and Class C when placing an order. (There are also class D (Multicast) and E (Experimental) formats.Multicast addresses will likely come into greater use in the near future, but are not frequently used now). In the past sites requiring multiple network addresses requested multiple discrete addresses (usually Class C). This was done because much of the software available (not ably 4. 2BSD) could not deal with subnetted addresses. Information on how to reach a particular network (routing information) must be stored in Internet gateways and packet switches. Some of these nodes have a limited capability to store and exchange routing i nformation (limited to about 300 networks).Therefore, it is suggested that any campus announce (make known to the Internet) no more than two discrete network numbers. If a campus expects to be constrained by this, it should consider subnetting. Subnetting (RFC-932) allows one to announce one address to the Internet and use a set of addresses on the campus. Basically, one defines a mask which allows the network to differentiate between the network portion and host portion of the address. By using a different mask on the Internet and the campus, the address can be interpreted in multiple ways.For example, if a campus requires two networks internally and has the 32,000 addresses beginning 128. 174. X. X (a Class B address) allocated to it, the campus could allocate 128. 174. 5. X to one part of campus and 128. 174. 10. X to another. By advertising 128. 174 to the Internet with a subnet mask of FF. FF. 00. 00, the Internet would treat these two addresses as one. Within the campus a mask of FF. FF. FF. 00 would be used, allowing the campus to treat the addresses as separate entities. (In reality you don't pass the subnet mask of FF. FF. 00. 0 to the Internet, the octet meaning is implicit in its being a class B address). A word of warning is necessary. Not all systems know how to do subnetting. Some 4. 2BSD systems require additional software. 4. 3BSD systems subnet as released. Other devices -7and operating systems vary in the problems they have dealing with subnets. Frequently these machines can be used as a leaf on a network but not as a gateway within the subnetted portion of the network. As time passes and more systems become 4. 3BSD based, these problems should disappear. 7 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. om The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet There has been some confusion in the past over the format of an IP broadcast address. Some machines used an address of all zeros to mean broadcast and some all ones. This was confusing when machines of both type were connected to the same network. The broadcast address of all ones has been adopted to end the grief. Some systems (e. g. 4. 2 BSD) allow one to choose the format of the broadcast address. If a system does allow this choice, care should be taken that the all ones format is chosen. (This is explained in RFC-1009 and RFC-1010). 8Internet Problems There are a number of problems with the Internet. Solutions to the problems range from software changes to long term research projects. Some of the major ones are detailed below: Number of Networks When the Internet was designed it was to have about 50 connected networks. With the explosion of networking, the number is now approaching 300. The software in a group of critical gateways (called the core gateways of the ARPAnet) are not able to pass or store much more than that number. In the short term, core reallocation and recoding has raised the number slightly.By the summer of '88 the current PDP-11 core gateways will be replaced with BB N Butterfly gateways which will solve the problem. Routing Issues Along with sheer mass of the data necessary to route packets to a large number of networks, there are many problems with the updating, stability, and optimality of the routing algorithms. Much research is being done in the area, but the optimal solution to these routing problems is still years away. In most cases the the routing we have today works, but sub-optimally and sometimes unpredictably. -8-Trust Issues Gateways exchange network routing information. Currently, most gateways accept on faith that the information provided about the state of the network is correct. In the past this was not a big problem since most of the gateways belonged to a single administrative entity (DARPA). Now with multiple wide area networks under different administrations, a rogue gateway somewhere in the net could cripple the Internet. There is design work going on to solve both the problem of Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com T he Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet gateway doing unreasonable things and providing enough information to reasonably route data between multiply connected networks (multi-homed networks). Capacity & Congestion Many portions of the ARPAnet are very congested during the busy part of the day. Additional links are planned to alleviate this congestion, but the implementation will take a few months. 9 These problems and the future direction of the Internet are determined by the Internet Architect (Dave Clark of MIT) being advised by the Internet Activities Board (IAB).This board is composed of chairmen of a number of committees with responsibility for various specialized areas of the Internet. The committees composing the IAB and their chairmen are: Committee Chair Autonomous Networks Deborah Estrin End-to-End Services Bob Braden Internet Architecture Dave Mills Internet Engineering Phil Gross EGP2 Mike Petry Name Domain Planning Doug Kingston Gateway Monitoring Craig Partridge Internic Jake Feinler Performance & Congestion ControlRobert Stine NSF Routing Chuck Hedrick Misc. MilSup Issues Mike St.Johns Privacy Steve Kent IRINET Requirements Vint Cerf Robustness & Survivability Jim Mathis Scientific Requirements Barry Leiner Note that under Internet Engineering, there are a set of task forces and chairs to look at short term concerns. The chairs of these task forces are not part of the IAB. -9Routing Routing is the algorithm by which a network directs a packet from its source to its destination. To appreciate the problem, watch a small child trying to find a table in a restaurant. From the adult point of view the structure of the dining room is seen and an optimal route easily chosen.The child, however, is presented with a set of paths between tables where a good path, let alone the optimal one to the goal is not discernible. *** A little more background might be appropriate. IP gateways (more correctly routers) are boxes which have connections to multiple networks and pass traffic between these nets. They decide how the packet is to be sent based on the information in the IP header of the packet and the state of the network. Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet Each interface on a router has an unique address appropriate to the network to which it is connected.The information in the IP header which is used is primarily the destination address. Other information (e. g. type of service) is largely ignored at this time. The state of the network is determined by the routers passing information among themselves. The distribution of the database (what each node knows), the form of the updates, and metrics used to measure the value of a connection, are the parameters which determine the characteristics of a routing protocol. Under some algorithms each node in the network has complete knowledge of the state of the network (the adult algorithm).This implies the nodes must have larger amounts of local storage and enough CPU to search the large tables in a short enough time (remember this must be done for each packet). Also, routing updates usually contain only changes to the existing information (or you spend a large amount of the network capacity passing around megabyte routing updates). This type of algorithm has several problems. Since the only way the routing information can be passed around is across the network and the propagation time is non-trivial, the view of the network at each node is a correct historical view of the network at varying times in the past. The adult algorithm, but rather than looking directly at the dining area, looking at a photograph of the dining room. One is likely to pick the optimal route and find a bus-cart has moved in to block the path after the photo was taken). These inconsistencies can cause circular routes (called routing loops) where once a packet enters it is routed in a closed path until its time to live (TTL) field expires and it is discarded. Other algorithms may know about only a subset of the network. To prevent loops in these protocols, they are usually used in a hierarchical network.They know completely about their own area, but to leave that area they go to one particular place (the default gateway). Typically these are used in smaller networks (campus, regional†¦ ). -10Routing protocols in current use: Static (no protocol-table/default routing) Don't laugh. It is probably the most reliable, easiest to implement, and least likely to get one into trouble for a small network or a leaf on the Internet. This is, also, the only method available on some CPU-operating system combinations.If a host is connected to an Ethernet which has only one gateway off of it, one should make that the default gateway for the host and do no other routing. (Of course that gateway may pass the reachablity information somehow on the other side of itself). One word of warning, it is only with extreme caution that one should use static ro utes in the middle of a network 10 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet which is also using dynamic routing. The routers passing dynamic information are sometimes confused by conflicting dynamic and static routes.If your host is on an ethernet with multiple routers to other networks on it and the routers are doing dynamic routing among themselves, it is usually better to take part in the dynamic routing than to use static routes. 11 RIP RIP is a routing protocol based on XNS (Xerox Network System) adapted for IP networks. It is used by many routers (Proteon, cisco, UB†¦ ) and many BSD Unix systems BSD systems typically run a program called â€Å"routed† to exchange information with other systems running RIP. RIP works best for nets of small diameter where the links are of equal speed.The reason for this is that the metric used to determine which path is best is the hop-count. A hop is a traversal across a gateway. So, all machin es on the same Ethernet are zero hops away. If a router connects connects two networks directly, a machine on the other side of the router is one hop away†¦. As the routing information is passed through a gateway, the gateway adds one to the hop counts to keep them consistent across the network. The diameter of a network is defined as the largest hop-count possible within a network. Unfortunately, a hop count of 16 is defined as infinity in RIP meaning the link is down.Therefore, RIP will not allow hosts separated by more than 15 gateways in the RIP space to communicate. The other problem with hop-count metrics is that if links have different speeds, that difference is not -11reflected in the hop-count. So a one hop satellite link (with a . 5 sec delay) at 56kb would be used instead of a two hop T1 connection. Congestion can be viewed as a decrease in the efficacy of a link. So, as a link gets more congested, RIP will still know it is the best hop-count route and congest it eve n more by throwing more packets on the queue for that link.The protocol is not well documented. A group of people are working on producing an RFC to both define the current RIP and to do some extensions to it to allow it to better cope with larger networks. Currently, the best documentation for RIP appears to be the code to BSD â€Å"routed†. Routed The ROUTED program, which does RIP for 4. 2BSD systems, Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet has many options. One of the most frequently used is: â€Å"routed -q† (quiet mode) which means listen to RIP information but never broadcast it.This would be used by a machine on a network with multiple RIP speaking gateways. It allows the host to determine which gateway is best (hopwise) to use to reach a distant network. (Of course you might want to have a default gateway to prevent having to pass all the addresses known to the Internet around with RIP). There are two ways to insert stat ic routes into â€Å"routed†, the â€Å"/etc/gateways† file and the â€Å"route add† command. Static routes are useful if you know how to reach a distant network, but you are not receiving that route using RIP. For the most part the â€Å"route add† command is preferable to use.The reason for this is that the command adds the route to that machine's routing table but does not export it through RIP. The â€Å"/etc/gateways† file takes precedence over any routing information received through a RIP update. It is also broadcast as fact in RIP updates produced by the host without question, so if a mistake is made in the â€Å"/etc/gateways† file, that mistake will soon permeate the RIP space and may bring the network to its knees. One of the problems with â€Å"routed† is that you have very little control over what gets broadcast and what doesn't.Many times in larger networks where various parts of the network are under different administr ative controls, you would like to pass on through RIP only nets which you receive from RIP and you know are reasonable. This prevents people from adding IP addresses to the network which may be illegal and you being responsible for passing them on to the Internet. This -12type of reasonability checks are not available with â€Å"routed† and leave it usable, but inadequate for large networks. 12 Hello (RFC-891) Hello is a routing protocol which was designed and implemented in a experimental software router called a â€Å"Fuzzball† hich runs on a PDP-11. It does not have wide usage, but is the routing protocol currently used on the NSFnet backbone. The data transferred between nodes is similar to RIP (a list of networks and their metrics). The metric, however, is milliseconds of delay. This allows Hello to be used over nets of various link speeds and performs better in congestive situations. One of the most interesting side effects of Hello based networks is their great timekeeping ability. If you consider the problem of measuring delay on a link for the metric, you find that it is not an easy thing toGet any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet do. You cannot measure round trip time since the return link may be more congested, of a different speed, or even not there. It is not really feasible for each node on the network to have a builtin WWV (nationwide radio time standard) receiver. So, you must design an algorithm to pass around time between nodes over the network links where the delay in transmission can only be approximated. Hello routers do this and in a nationwide network maintain synchronized time within milliseconds. 13Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP RFC-904) EGP is not strictly a routing protocol, it is a reachability protocol. It tells only if nets can be reached through a particular gateway, not how good the connection is. It is the standard by which gateways to local nets inform the ARPAnet of the net s they can reach. There is a metric passed around by EGP but its usage is not standardized formally. Its typical value is value is 1 to 8 which are arbitrary goodness of link values understood by the internal DDN gateways. The smaller the value the better and a value of 8 being unreachable.A quirk of the protocol prevents distinguishing between 1 and 2, 3 and 4†¦ , so the usablity of this as a metric is as three values and unreachable. Within NSFnet the values used are 1, 3, and unreachable. Many routers talk EGP so they can be used for ARPAnet gateways. -13Gated So we have regional and campus networks talking RIP among themselves, the NSFnet backbone talking Hello, and the DDN speaking EGP. How do they interoperate? In the beginning there was static routing, assembled into the Fuzzball software configured for each site.The problem with doing static routing in the middle of the network is that it is broadcast to the Internet whether it is usable or not. Therefore, if a net beco mes unreachable and you try to get there, dynamic routing will immediately issue a net unreachable to you. Under static routing the routers would think the net could be reached and would continue trying until the application gave up (in 2 or more minutes). Mark Fedor of Cornell ([email  protected] tn. cornell. edu) attempted to solve these problems with a replacement for â€Å"routed† called â€Å"gated†. â€Å"Gated† talks RIP to RIP speaking hosts, EGP to EGP speakers, and Hello to Hello'ers.These speakers frequently all live on one Ethernet, but luckily (or unluckily) cannot understand each others ruminations. In addition, under configuration file control it can filter the conversion. For example, one can produce a Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet configuration saying announce RIP nets via Hello only if they are specified in a list and are reachable by way of a RIP broadcast as well. This means that if a rogue network appears in your local site's RIP space, it won't be passed through to the Hello side of the world.There are also configuration options to do static routing and name trusted gateways. This may sound like the greatest thing since sliced bread, but there is a catch called metric conversion. You have RIP measuring in hops, Hello measuring in milliseconds, and EGP using arbitrary small numbers. The big questions is how many hops to a millisecond, how many milliseconds in the EGP number 3†¦. Also, remember that infinity (unreachability) is 16 to RIP, 30000 or so to Hello, and 8 to the DDN with EGP. Getting all these metrics to work well together is no small feat.If done incorrectly and you translate an RIP of 16 into an EGP of 6, everyone in the ARPAnet will still think your gateway can reach the unreachable and will send every packet in the world your way. For these reasons, Mark requests that you consult closely with him when configuring and using â€Å"gated†. -14â € ³Names† All routing across the network is done by means of the IP address associated with a packet. Since humans find it difficult to remember addresses like 128. 174. 5. 50, a symbolic name register was set up at the NIC where people would say â€Å"I would like my host to be named ‘uiucuxc'†.Machines connected to the Internet across the nation would connect to the NIC in the middle of the night, check modification dates on the hosts file, and if modified move it to their local machine. With the advent of workstations and micros, changes to the host file would have to be made nightly. It would also be very labor intensive and consume a lot of network bandwidth. RFC-882 and a number of others describe domain name service, a distributed data base system for mapping names into addresses. We must look a little more closely into what's in a name. First, note that an address specifies a particular connection on a specific network.If the machine moves, the address c hanges. Second, a machine can have one or more names and one or more network addresses (connections) to different networks. Names point to a something which does useful work (i. e. the machine) and IP addresses point to an interface on that provider. A name is a purely symbolic representation of a list of addresses on the network. If a machine moves to a different network, the addresses will change but the name could remain the same. Domain names are tree structured names with the root of the tree at the right. For example: 14 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. om The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet 15 uxc. cso. uiuc. edu is a machine called ‘uxc' (purely arbitrary), within the subdomains method of allocation of the U of I) and ‘uiuc' (the University of Illinois at Urbana), registered with ‘edu' (the set of educational institutions). A simplified model of how a name is resolved is that on the user's machine there is a resolver. The resolver knows how to contac t across the network a root name server. Root servers are the base of the tree structured data retrieval system. They know who is responsible for handling first level domains (e. g. ‘edu').What root servers to use is an installation parameter. From the root server the resolver finds out who provides ‘edu' service. It contacts the ‘edu' name server which supplies it with a list of addresses of servers for the subdomains (like ‘uiuc'). This action is repeated with the subdomain servers until the final subdomain returns a list of addresses of interfaces on the host in question. The user's machine then has its choice of which of these addresses to use for communication. -15A group may apply for its own domain name (like ‘uiuc' above). This is done in a manner similar to the IP address allocation.The only requirements are that the requestor have two machines reachable from the Internet, which will act as name servers for that domain. Those servers could also act as servers for subdomains or other servers could be designated as such. Note that the servers need not be located in any particular place, as long as they are reachable for name resolution. (U of I could ask Michigan State to act on its behalf and that would be fine). The biggest problem is that someone must do maintenance on the database. If the machine is not convenient, that might not be done in a timely fashion.The other thing to note is that once the domain is allocated to an administrative entity, that entity can freely allocate subdomains using what ever manner it sees fit. The Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) Server implements the Internet name server for UNIX systems. The name server is a distributed data base system that allows clients to name resources and to share that information with other network hosts. BIND is integrated with 4. 3BSD and is used to lookup and store host names, addresses, mail agents, host information, and more. It replaces the â€Å"/etc/ho sts† file for host name lookup.BIND is still an evolving program. To keep up with reports on operational problems, future design decisions, etc, join the BIND mailing list by sending a request to â€Å"[email  protected] Berkeley. EDU†. BIND can also be obtained via anonymous FTP from ucbarpa. berkley. edu. There are several advantages in using BIND. One of the most important is that it frees a host from relying on â€Å"/etc/hosts† Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet being up to date and complete. Within the . uiuc. edu domain, only a few hosts are included in the host table distributed by SRI.The remainder are listed locally within the BIND tables on uxc. cso. uiuc. edu (the server machine for most of the . uiuc. edu domain). All are equally reachable from any other Internet host running BIND. BIND can also provide mail forwarding information for interior hosts not directly reachable from the Internet. These hosts c an either be on non-advertised networks, or not connected to a network at all, as in the case of UUCP-reachable hosts. More information on BIND is available in the â€Å"Name Server Operations Guide for BIND† in â€Å"UNIX System Manager's Manual†, 4. 3BSD release.There are a few special domains on the network, like SRINIC. ARPA. The ‘arpa' domain is historical, referring to hosts registered in the old hosts database at the NIC. There are others of the form NNSC. NSF. NET. These special domains are used sparingly and require ample justification. They refer to servers under the administrative control of -16the network rather than any single organization. This allows for the actual server to be moved around the net while the user interface to that machine remains constant. That is, should BBN relinquish control of the NNSC, the new provider would be pointed to by that name.In actuality, the domain system is a much more general and complex system than has been descr ibed. Resolvers and some servers cache information to allow steps in the resolution to be skipped. Information provided by the servers can be arbitrary, not merely IP addresses. This allows the system to be used both by non-IP networks and for mail, where it may be necessary to give information on intermediate mail bridges. 16 What's wrong with Berkeley Unix University of California at Berkeley has been funded by DARPA to modify the Unix system in a number of ways.Included in these modifications is support for the Internet protocols. In earlier versions (e. g. BSD 4. 2) there was good support for the basic Internet protocols (TCP, IP, SMTP, ARP) which allowed it to perform nicely on IP ethernets and smaller Internets. There were deficiencies, however, when it was connected to complicated networks. Most of these problems have been resolved under the newest release (BSD 4. 3). Since it is the springboard from which many vendors have launched Unix implementations (either by porting the existing code or by using it as a model), many implementations (e. g.Ultrix) are still based on BSD 4. 2. Therefore, many implementations still exist with the BSD 4. 2 problems. As time goes on, when BSD 4. 3 trickles through Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet vendors as new release, many of the problems will be resolved. Following is a list of some problem scenarios and their handling under each of these releases. ICMP redirects Under the Internet model, all a system needs to know to get anywhere in the Internet is its own address, the address of where it wants to go, and how to reach a gateway which knows about the Internet.It doesn't have to be the best gateway. If the system is on a network with multiple gateways, and a host sends a packet for delivery to a gateway which feels another directly connected gateway is more appropriate, the gateway sends the sender a message. This message is an ICMP redirect, which politely says â€Å"I' ll deliver this message for you, but you really ought to use that gateway over there to reach this host†. BSD 4. 2 ignores these messages. This creates more stress on the gateways and the local network, since for every packet -17sent, the gateway sends a packet to the originator.BSD 4. 3 uses the redirect to update its routing tables, will use the route until it times out, then revert to the use of the route it thinks is should use. The whole process then repeats, but it is far better than one per packet. Trailers An application (like FTP) sends a string of octets to TCP which breaks it into chunks, and adds a TCP header. TCP then sends blocks of data to IP which adds its own headers and ships the packets over the network. All this prepending of the data with headers causes memory moves in both the sending and the receiving machines.Someone got the bright idea that if packets were long and they stuck the headers on the end (they became trailers), the receiving machine could pu t the packet on the beginning of a page boundary and if the trailer was OK merely delete it and transfer control of the page with no memory moves involved. The problem is that trailers were never standardized and most gateways don't know to look for the routing information at the end of the block. When trailers are used, the machine typically works fine on the local network (no gateways involved) and for short blocks through gateways (on which trailers aren't used).So TELNET and FTP's of very short files work just fine and FTP's of long files seem to hang. On BSD 4. 2 trailers are a boot option and one should make sure they are off when using the Internet. BSD 4. 3 negotiates trailers, so it uses them on its local net and doesn't use them when going across the network. 17 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet Retransmissions TCP fires off blocks to its partner at the far end of the connection. If it doesn't receive an acknowledgement in a re asonable amount of time it retransmits the blocks.The determination of what is reasonable is done by TCP's retransmission algorithm. There is no correct algorithm but some are better than others, where better is measured by the number of retransmissions done unnecessarily. BSD 4. 2 had a retransmission algorithm which retransmitted quickly and often. This is exactly what you would want if you had a bunch of machines on an ethernet (a low delay network of large bandwidth). If you have a network of relatively longer delay and scarce bandwidth (e. g. 56kb lines), it tends to retransmit too aggressively.Therefore, it makes the networks and gateways pass more traffic than is really necessary for a given conversation. Retransmission algorithms do adapt to the delay of the network -18after a few packets, but 4. 2's adapts slowly in delay situations. BSD 4. 3 does a lot better and tries to do the best for both worlds. It fires off a few retransmissions really quickly assuming it is on a low delay network, and then backs off very quickly. It also allows the delay to be about 4 minutes before it gives up and declares the connection broken. -19Appendix A References to Remedial Information 18Quaterman and Hoskins, â€Å"Notable Computer Networks†, Communications of the ACM, Vol 29, #10, pp. 932-971 (October, 1986). Tannenbaum, Andrew S. , Computer Networks, Prentice Hall, 1981. Hedrick, Chuck, Introduction to the Internet Protocols, Anonymous FTP from topaz. rutgers. edu, directory pub/tcp-ip-docs, file tcp-ip-intro. doc. -20Appendix B List of Major RFCs RFC-768 RFC-791 RFC-792 RFC-793 RFC-821 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Internet Protocol (IP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the InternetRFC-822 RFC-854 RFC-917 * RFC-919 * RFC-922 * Subnets RFC-940 * RFC-947 * RFC-950 * RFC-959 RFC-966 * Protocol RFC-988 * RFC-997 * RF C-1010 * RFC-1011 * Standard for the Format of ARPA Internet Text Messages Telnet Protocol Internet Subnets Broadcasting Internet Datagrams Broadcasting Internet Datagrams in the Presence of Toward an Internet Standard Scheme for Subnetting Multi-network Broadcasting within the Internet Internet Standard Subnetting Procedure File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Host Groups: A Multicast Extension to the Internet Host Extensions for IP Multicasting Internet Numbers Assigned Numbers Official ARPA-Internet Protocols 9 RFC's marked with the asterisk (*) are not included in the 1985 DDN Protocol Handbook. Note: This list is a portion of a list of RFC's by topic retrieved from the NIC under NETINFO:RFC-SETS. TXT (anonymous FTP of course). The following list is not necessary for connection to the Internet, but is useful in understanding the domain system, mail system, and gateways: RFC-882 RFC-883 RFC-973 RFC-974 RFC-1009 Domain Names – Concepts and Facilities Domain Names – Implement ation Domain System Changes andObservations Mail Routing and the Domain System Requirements for Internet Gateways -21Appendix C Contact Points for Network Information Network Information Center (NIC) DDN Network Information Center SRI International, Room EJ291 333 Ravenswood Avenue Menlo Park, CA 94025 (800) 235-3155 or (415) 859-3695 [email  protected] ARPA NSF Network Service Center (NNSC) NNSC BBN Laboratories Inc. 10 Moulton St. Cambridge, MA 02238 (617) 497-3400 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet[email  protected] NSF. NET -22Glossary core gateway The innermost gateways of the ARPAnet. These gateways have a total picture of the reachability to all networks known to the ARPAnet with EGP. They then redistribute reachability information to all those gateways speaking EGP. It is from them your EGP agent (there is one acting for you somewhere if you can reach the ARPAnet) finds out it can reach all the nets on the ARPAnet. Which is th en passed to you via Hello, gated, RIP†¦. ount to infinity The symptom of a routing problem where routing information is passed in a circular manner through multiple gateways. Each gateway increments the metric appropriately and passes it on. As the metric is passed around the loop, it increments to ever increasing values til it reaches the maximum for the routing protocol being used, which typically denotes a link outage. hold down When a router discovers a path in the network has gone down announcing that that path is down for a minimum amount of time (usually at least two minutes).This allows for the propagation of the routing information across the network and prevents the formation of routing loops. split horizon When a router (or group of routers working in consort) accept routing information from multiple external networks, but do not pass on information learned from one external network to any others. This is an attempt to prevent bogus routes to a network from being pr opagated because of gossip or counting to infinity. -23- 20 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com

The Effects Of Minimum Wages On Employment, By Benjamin...

Across the United States, many low skilled workers struggle to remain above the poverty line due to their small hourly wages. Some groups advocate for increased wages, but others oppose that idea because of the possibility of widespread job losses. Even though researchers have heavily analyzed the effects of a living wage in the past few years, experts claim that different kinds of studies are biased to support one viewpoint over the other. The articles â€Å"Living Wage Ordinances and Wages, Poverty, and Unemployment in US Cities,† by Benjamin Sosnaud, and â€Å"The Effects of Minimum Wages on Employment,† by David Neumark, analyze different studies about the effects of increasing the minimum wage to a living wage on a national scale. Neumark focuses his analysis mainly on different reasons why certain researchers are more biased than others. Sosnaud, on the other hand, takes studies from various cities with and without living wages from across the United States so he can compare them and draw his own conclusions about the true effects of raised wages. Even though Neumark’s points out how certain studies can be biased and invalid, Sosnaud’s evaluation of the issue based on a wide variety of research makes it very credible and gives readers a much clearer picture of nation-wide side effects. David Neumark’s article heavily criticizes different studies about minimum wage effects. He starts off the article with a quick summary of common theories. Those against wage increases believe

Beneficiaries of clubs law - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3418 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? 192596 Title: Captain Ahab died in 2005. His will included, inter alia, the following two gifts to the Midlands Whale Watching Club: a) My house, Moby Villa, to be used as a headquarters for the Club; and b)  £160,000, to enable members to go on trips to watch whales in Antarctica. The Midlands Whale Watching Club is a non-charitable unincorporated association whose rules consist of the following clauses: 1) The main object of the club is to promote knowledge of whales and to campaign against any threats to their continuing survival by the provision of information through lectures and public meetings. 2) Membership shall be open to all who show a sufficient knowledge of whales in a written examination and pay an annual subscription to be fixed by an elected committee. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Beneficiaries of clubs law" essay for you Create order 3) The Club shall attempt either to rent, or purchase, or otherwise acquire premises to act as a meeting place for members and as an information centre for the general public. No such premises had been found at the time of Captain Ahabs death. Consider the validity of Captain Ahabs gifts. [Area of law: Equity and Trusts Gifts to unincorporated associations, Trusts for purposes.] In deciding whether the above dispositions can be classed as valid an examination of the beneficiary principle needs conducting to determine whether the club can be treated as beneficiaries. In some cases the beneficiary principle has not been satisfied but the courts have held the trusts to be valid[1]. Examination of when the courts have taken this view is essential[2]. A discussion on purpose trusts is also necessary[3]. It is prudent to distinguish between charitable and non-charitable trusts despite the statement above that this is a non-charitable association. The rule against purpose trusts has been established in terms of the beneficiary principle. Sir William Grant MR in Morice v Bishop of Durham[4] stated that Every trust must have a definite object. There must be someone in whose favour the court can decree specific performance. This was reaffirmed by Lord Parker in Bowman v Secular Society[5]. In this case he made the comment that for a trust to be valid it must be for the benefit of individuals[6]. Such difficulties caused by purpose trusts have led to the formation of the beneficiary principle. Under this principle the general rule is that there must be identifiable beneficiaries in order to create a valid trust[7]. Purpose trusts offend against this as they lack anyone with locus standi to enforce the terms of the trust. The beneficiaries should supervise the trusts as they are the persons most interested in their proper administration. The beneficiaries are best placed to bring any abuses to the attention of the courts[8]. As the intention of the t estator is to give the house to the beneficiaries as a meeting place it is necessary to consider perpetuity. Inclusion of property in a trust may prevent the most efficient use of that property and affect its marketability. Trust law addresses this by dictating that property may not be subject to a trust for an excessive period of time. Property that is part of a private trust must not be held on trust in excess of the perpetuity period[9]. This has been defined as the duration of a human life at the date the trust was established plus 21 years. The aim was to prevent purpose trusts from becoming perpetual trusts. Exceptions to this are allowed where the trust is for charitable purposes. Trusts that do not satisfy the beneficiary principle have been treated as invalid on many occasions[10]. Roxburgh J held the trust invalid for offending against the beneficiary principle and for uncertainty[11] of the purpose in Re Astorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Settlement Trusts[12]. In reaching his c onclusion he referred to Re Wood[13] and the comments of Harman J who asserted that a gift on trust must have a cestui que trust. Roxburgh J held that none of the exceptions had been satisfied in Astorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s case and therefore the trust was void. A similar decision was reached by Harman L J in Re Endacott[14] where he applied the beneficiary principle to a gift given by Albert Endacott to the North Tawton Devon Parish Council for a memorial of himself. It was held that such a gift created a non-charitable purpose trust and did not fall into the exceptions category. There are a few exceptions where the courts have upheld non-charitable purpose trusts despite the lack of beneficiaries[15]. Harman L J discussed these exceptions in Re Endacott[16] Harman L J and made the comment that there are decisions which are not really to be satisfactorily classified, but are perhaps merely occasions where Homer has nodded, at any rate these cases stand by themselves and ought not t o be increased in number, nor indeed followed, except where the one is exactly like the other. It seems from this comment that Harman L J is not comfortable with the exceptions and is warning against the use of these to validate such trusts. Trusts that are regarded as exceptions can still become void if they offend against the perpetuity period. Such trusts are best regarded as trusts of imperfect obligation. Exceptions have been allowed where the application of the trust is for the care and maintenance of animals[17]. Any trust that is created for the welfare of animals in general will be charitable. A trust for the maintenance of a specific animal cannot be classed as charitable but could be classed as an exception. In Pettingall v Pettingall[18] a gift by the testator of  £50 per annum for the upkeep of his favourite black mare was upheld. Similar decision have been reached in Mitford v Reynolds[19] where the gift was for the upkeep of the testatorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ s horses and Re Dean[20] where the testator left his 8 horses and his house to his trustees. He charged his freehold estate with an annuity of  £750 per year for 50 years if they should live that long to be paid to the trustees for their upkeep. This was held to be a valid non-charitable trust by North J who rejected the beneficiary principle entirely stating that he did not assent to the view that a trust is not valid if there is no cestui que trust to enforce it[21]. Re Dean would appear to offend against the perpetuity period despite this case being used as an authority for trusts for the maintenance of animals. The rationale behind the decision of North J would appear to be that he was judging the perpetuity period in respect of the life expectancy of the animal. This notion was rejected by Meredith J in Re Kelly[22] who made the point that the perpetuity period should not centre on the life expectancy of the animal. He stated that there can be no doubt that lives mean s lives of human beings, not of animals or trees in California. The mostly commonly used form of trusts for the maintenance of a particular animal centres on property left by the testator for the benefit of his favourite animal. For the purposes of the trust the animal would also be classed as property. This would give the new owner of the animal prime responsibility for its welfare, and as such the failure of the trust would not lead to no one having responsibility to care for the animal. Exceptions have also been applied where money has been placed in trust for the maintenance of specific graves and monuments[23] as well as saying masses for the dead. The perpetuity period still needs to be satisfied to make such trusts valid[24]. In some cases the courts have interpreted the saying of masses for the dead as charitable activities for the advancement in religion so long as the masses were celebrated in public as was the case in Re Hetherington[25]. Trusts that do fall with in the exceptions can be invalid if the purpose is deemed to be useless. An example of where this happened was in Brown v Burdett[26] where the testator created a trust to block up all the rooms of a house for twenty years. A similar decision was reached in Mà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢Caigà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢S Trustees v Kirk-Session of United Free Church of Lismore[27] where a trust to erect bronze statues was void on grounds of public policy since it involved a sheer waste of money[28]. In some instances where trusts fail because of uncertainty, perpetuity or illegality an automatic resulting trust[29] can be established[30]. The court found an automatic resulting trust[31] in Re Osoba[32] which involved a bequest to a testatorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s widow for the training of the daughter and the maintenance of the aged mother. A resulting trust would not be created if the donors have parted with their money in exchange for tickets[33]. Under the exceptions a non-charitable purpose trust c an be treated as valid if it will benefit identifiable individuals[34] who posses sufficient locus standi to enforce it[35]. One such purpose trust deemed to be valid was Re Denleyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Trust Deed[36]. In this case Charles Denley had transferred land to trustees to be maintained and used as a sports field for the employees of a company. Goff J held that although the trust was expressed to be for a purpose is was in fact for the benefit of individuals as they would benefit directly or indirectly from the carrying out of the purpose. He also stated that the employees were an ascertainable and certain class[37] and would have locus standi to apply to the court to enforce the trust. This same principle has also been applied to unincorporated associations[38]. A prime example of this is Re Lipinskià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Will Trusts[39] where Harry Lipinski left his residuary estate to the Hull Judeans (Maccabi) Association in memory of his wife to be used solely in construc ting new buildings for the association. It was concluded by Oliver J that this gift[40] was directly for the benefit of the members[41] of the association and could be construed as a gift to them as individuals[42]. Having analysed the beneficiary principle and the exceptions it is possible to speculate on the courts decision in the above. If the trust had been specifically worded for the benefit of the whales the courts may well have taken the opinion that this is for the benefit of a specific class of animal and held this part of the trust to be for a charitable purpose[43]. The association might also fall into the classification of being for educational purposes as one of the aims of the organisation is to give lectures to the general public to increase their knowledge of the whales[44]. The advancement of education has been extended in some instances to include industrial training, research and the promotion of culture and sport[45]. It may well be that the courts will dee m that the association is involved in research of the whales and accord them charitable status. There appears to be a divide in the opinions of the court in respect of when such gifts can be read as charitable. In Re Nottage[46] it was held that the gift of a prize for yacht racing was not charitable as it only served to promote the sport. By contrast in IRC v McMullen[47] the promotion of sport in schools and universities was regarded as for the advancement of education since education includes spiritual, moral, mental and physical elements. Similarly in Re Mariette[48] a gift to provide squash courts at a specific school was held to be charitable. To be recognised as charitable the purpose of the organisation must be for the public benefit[49]. Charitable status has been formulated through case law. For a purpose to be classified as charitable it must be beneficial in a way which is charitable and be shown to be available to the public[50] or a sufficient section of the public and not merely to a private class of individuals[51]. The courts have adopted a subjective assessment in deciding whether the benefit is for the community at large. The courts look at whether the donor thought that the purpose was beneficial to the public. In Re Foveaux[52] a gift to the International Society for the Total Suppression of Vivisection was held to be charitable on the principle that the donor has considered it to be so[53]. Similarly in Re Cranston[54] Fitzgibbon LJ took the view that it would be charitable provided the purpose was one which the founder of the society believed to be to public advantage[55]. Sometimes the courts have adopted an objective assessment as in National Anti-Vivisection Society v IRC[56] where the courts chose not to follow the decision of Re Foveaux[57] and declared the society non-charitable. Lord Simmons made the observation that Where on the evidence before it the court concludes that, however well-intentioned the donor, the achievem ent of his object will be greatly to the public disadvantage, there can be no justification for saying that it is a charitable object. In according charitable status the courts have to determine whether the benefit to the general public is too remote. It was held in IRC v Oldham Training and Enterprise Council[58] by Lightman J that these objects were non-charitable because the benefits to the community conferred were too remote. The association would need to benefit a significant amount of the public for it to be classed as for the public benefit[59]. The conclusion from the above would seem to be that the trust will be held to be valid even if it is not accorded charitable status as there are ascertainable beneficiaries and the disposition is for the benefit of the members of the club[60]. The court may decide against awarding charitable status as the rules of membership limit the number of persons eligible to join and require a membership fee. It is likely that the courts w ould allow the house to be used as a meeting place for the association especially since the meetings will be open to the general public. The money left for the trips to see the whales may fail as it would only benefit a specific section of the public this being the members of the association. However, the courts may allow this to be valid using the authorities Re Denleyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Trust Deed[61] and Re Lipinskià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Will Trusts[62]. 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(2d) 433 Re West Sussex Constabularys Widows, Children and Benevolent Fund Trusts (1970) 1 All ER 544 Re West Sussex Constabularys Widows, Children and Benevolent Fund Trusts (1970) 1 All ER 544 Re Wood [1949] Ch 498 Trimmer v Danby (1856) 25 LJ Ch 424 Table of Statues Charitable Uses Act 1601 Charities Act 1960 1 Footnotes [1] Re Sayer [1957] Ch. 423 [1957] 2 W.L.R. 261 [1956] 3 All E.R. 600 (1957) 101 S.J. 130 [2] Re Coates (Deceased) [1955] Ch. 495 [1954] 3 W.L.R. 959 [1955] 1 All E.R. 26 (1954) 98 S.J. 871 [3] Re Wedge (1968) 67 D.L.R. 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